An eight grade earth-science teacher begins a lesson by showing students several slides depicting the moon at successive one-hour intervals.. Then the teacher says, "Today we are going to discuss the sightings you made of the moon and stars in the Western sky last night for homework, and then I will do a demonstration on how to measure the altitude and compass location of a star. You will use this information to practice making measurements of fictional stars in the classroom in small groups. Finally I'll give you some problems to solve, and then you'll use what you learned today to measure changes in star motion in tonight's sky for homework.
This opening statement by a junior high science teacher conveys some of the elements of the direct/interactive teaching model. The Direct/Interactive Teaching Model (DIT) is a good place to begin because it flourishes in many classrooms, and calls on the teacher to direct students by assigning specific tasks that must be completed under direct teacher supervision. It is, however, a dynamic model in that the most effective form of direct teaching implies interaction between the teacher and the students. Thus I have combined these elements in naming this model the DIT Model.
The teaching of science information and skills can be accomplished quite effectively through the Direct/Interactive Teaching Model. In the science classroom, the material to be learned is subdivided into smaller chunks of information and is presented directly to the students. In this teacher-centered model, the teacher's role is very clear: to teach science information and skills in the most direct manner possible.
Research by a number of science educators shows that when direct instruction strategies are used a notable increase in achievement occurs. Research from a number of science education studies resulted in the following pattern. The science classroom that is based on the direct/interactive teaching model appears to be characterized by a number of factors as follows:
1. Instructional objectives are formulated and communicated to the students prior to the start of a unit of teaching.2. Teachers gain attention at the start of each lesson by using focusing behaviors and strategies such as advanced organizers and set induction. These typically include asking questions, performing a short demonstration, or the use of an EEEP (see chapter 8).
3. Students handle, operate on, or practice with science teaching materials. This includes the full range of manipulative materials including the familiar science objects such as rocks, fossils, and plant specimens, to pictorial stimuli, as well as cardboard cutouts depicting science concepts such as crystal form, as well as the manipulation of paper products such as cards with the names and pictures of atoms, organisms, chemical equations, and the like.
4. Teachers alter instructional materials or classroom procedures to facilitate student learning. Rewriting activity or experiment procedures from a textbook, making audio tapes of the science textbook, and giving students directions in writing are examples of how science teacher alter instructional procedures.
5. The science teacher focuses attention on the type and placement of questions asked during lessons.
6. In effective science classrooms, teachers provide immediate as well as explanatory feedback during the instructional process, rather than waiting until a quiz or major test.
The Direct/Interactive teaching model fosters a learning environment characterized by teacher-directed learning and high levels of teacher-student interaction. Rosenshine (1983) has identified six teaching functions that taken together constitute the essential principles of direct/interactive teaching. These functions include checking previous day's homework, presenting and demonstrating new content and skills, leading the initial student practice session, providing feedback and correctives, providing independent practice, and doing weekly and monthly reviews.
Teaching
Function Specific
Behaviors 1. Checking previous
day's work and reteaching 2. Presenting and/or
demonstrating new content and skills 3. Leading initial
student practice 4. Providing
feedback and correctives (and recycling of instruction if
necessary) 5. Providing
independent practice so that students are firm and
automatic 6. Providing weekly
and monthly reviews
The Direct/Interactive Teaching Model can be represented as a cycle of teaching.
As you implement this model of teaching it is important to note that four important aspects of the model stand out.
Structuring Content for Direct/Interactive Teaching
Another important aspect of the Direct/Interactive Teaching Model is is the presentation and structuring of science content. One of the key ingredients is to break content into manageable, teachable and learnable chunks. Borich points out that most teachers "divide" content based on the content divisions in science textbooks. As he points out, this organization is often arranged to help students read the text, and therefore may not be the best way to present content. There are a number of ways to structure new science content. Following are four suggestions that you should find helpful in dividing science content for the Direct/Interactive Teaching model. They include whole-part, sequential, combinatorial and comparative methods of content structuring.
Whole-part. Organizing content in a whole to part format is useful in introducing science content in its most general form. For instance, if you were presenting information on rock types, you might start with the question What are the types of rocks? This would lead to natural subdivisions (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) that can be easily learned by students.
Whole-part structuring is a powerful way to organize information. Recent research using the technique of concept mapping (see chapter 2) is based on the organization of knowledge from whole to part. Whole to part thinking gives students an organizational framework from which to operate. Big ideas can be used to "hook" subconcepts and subideas, rather than as isolated bits of information.
Sequential Structuring. Sequential structuring is organizing content and skills by ordering. Typically the content or skills are presented from simplest to most complex. Sequential structuring is based on a hierarchical arrangement of science content or science skills. In a way, sequential structuring is an alternative to the Whole-part organization discussed above. Typically in the sequential structuring of science content or skills, students would be introduced to prerequisite content or skills first, and then be introduced to content or skills that was dependent on the previously learned material or skill.
For example science skills or processes can be broken down into a number simpler skills that can be mastered in sequence. Simpler or more basic process skills would be introduced first. Examples would include:
More complex science skills would be introduced later after students had mastered the more simple or basic skills. Complex science skills often involve the integration of two or more process skills, and therefore are usually refered to as integrated process skills. Some include:
Science content can similarly be arranged in a hierarchy. Scientists classify matter according to size and function. This classification leads to levels of organization. The levels of organization can be useful as a mechanism to sequence content. For example if we were to organize a unit of instruction on ecology, we could use the levels of organization of matter shown below as the sequence of presentation of content from the microworld, which would contain nonlife, subatomic particles, atom, atoms, protoplasm, and cells to the supermacro world consisting of stars, galaxies and the Universe.
Combinatorial Organization. Science content can be presented by highlighting connections among the various elements of content to be presented. One very effective means of doing this is to present the elements of the content in a cycle. There are many cycles in the various disciplines of science. In Earth science content could be organized, for example by means of the rock cycle or the water cycle instead of learning simply about rivers. In biology the photosynthesis, and the Krebs cycle could be organizational cycles to show relationships and combinations.
The figure above shows a summary of the major components of an ecosystem and how they are interconnected through chemical and energy cycles. Nonliving chemicals, producers, macroconsumers, and microconsumers are presented in relationship to each other. The presentation of "new content" would include the relationships as well as the specific details of the elements (e.g. macroconsumers). The cycle itself is another powerful organizing element to help the student learn and understand the material being presented.
Comparative Relationships. Another effective way to present content is comparing categories of content in order to heighten similarities and differences. The example cited (Figure 7.11) contrasts the similarities and differences among four types of drugs. The advantage of this approach is that the organization of the content into a chart is a useful learning devise for the student, and individual elements (e.g. type of drug) are learned in relationship to others. Students can graphically compare, for instance, relative dependence and effects of the drugs.
Drug Dependence
Potential Short-term
Effects Long-term
Effects Stimulants •
Caffeine •
Amphetamines •
Cocaine Probable High High Increased heart
rate, increased blood pressure Irregular heartbeat,
high blood pressure, stomach disorders Depressants •
Barbiturates •
Tranquilizers High High Drowsiness,
decreased coordination Depression,
emotional instability, hallucinations, death Psychoactive
drugs • Lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) • Cannabis
sativa (marijuana) Probable Probable Hallucinations Short-term memory
loss, disorientation Psychosis Lung damage, loss of
motivation Narcotics •
Heroin •
Codeine •
Morphine High High High Drowsiness,
respiratory depression, nausea, constricted
pupils Convulsions, coma,
death